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Department of Clinical Sciences, Division of Oncology and Pathology, Lund University, Lund, SwedenCREATE Health Strategic Center for Translational Cancer Research, Lund University, Lund, Sweden
Department of Clinical Sciences, Division of Oncology and Pathology, Lund University, Lund, SwedenCREATE Health Strategic Center for Translational Cancer Research, Lund University, Lund, Sweden
Department of Clinical Sciences, Division of Oncology and Pathology, Lund University, Lund, SwedenCREATE Health Strategic Center for Translational Cancer Research, Lund University, Lund, Sweden
Department of Clinical Sciences, Division of Oncology and Pathology, Lund University, Lund, SwedenCREATE Health Strategic Center for Translational Cancer Research, Lund University, Lund, Sweden
Department of Clinical Sciences, Division of Oncology and Pathology, Lund University, Lund, SwedenCREATE Health Strategic Center for Translational Cancer Research, Lund University, Lund, Sweden
Department of Clinical Sciences, Division of Oncology and Pathology, Lund University, Lund, SwedenDepartment of Clinical Pathology, Skåne University Hospital, Lund, Sweden
Department of Clinical Sciences, Division of Oncology and Pathology, Lund University, Lund, SwedenCREATE Health Strategic Center for Translational Cancer Research, Lund University, Lund, Sweden
Department of Clinical Molecular Biology and Laboratory Sciences, Akershus University Hospital, Lørenskog, NorwayInstitute of Clinical Medicine, University of Oslo, Oslo, Norway
Department of Clinical Sciences, Division of Oncology and Pathology, Lund University, Lund, SwedenCREATE Health Strategic Center for Translational Cancer Research, Lund University, Lund, Sweden
Department of Clinical Sciences, Division of Oncology and Pathology, Lund University, Lund, SwedenCREATE Health Strategic Center for Translational Cancer Research, Lund University, Lund, Sweden
The microphthalmia–associated transcription factor (MITF) is a key regulator of melanocyte development and a lineage-specific oncogene in melanoma; a highly lethal cancer known for its unpredictable clinical course. MITF is regulated by multiple intracellular signaling pathways, although the exact mechanisms that determine MITF expression and activity remain incompletely understood. In this study, we obtained genome-wide DNA methylation profiles from 50 stage IV melanomas, normal melanocytes, keratinocytes, and dermal fibroblasts and utilized The Cancer Genome Atlas data for experimental validation. By integrating DNA methylation and gene expression data, we found that hypermethylation of MITF and its co-regulated differentiation pathway genes corresponded to decreased gene expression levels. In cell lines with a hypermethylated MITF-pathway, overexpression of MITF did not alter the expression level or methylation status of the MITF pathway genes. In contrast, however, demethylation treatment of these cell lines induced MITF-pathway activity, confirming that gene regulation was controlled via methylation. The discovery that the activity of the master regulator of pigmentation, MITF, and its downstream targets may be regulated by hypermethylation has significant implications for understanding the development and evolvement of melanoma.
Abbreviations
FDR
false discovery rate
MITF
microphthalmia–associated transcription factor
Introduction
Tumorigenesis is accompanied by diverse genomic and epigenomic alterations, including somatic mutations, copy number variations, and changes in DNA methylation patterns. The significance of somatic mutations and copy number variations has been investigated in melanoma, highlighting the pattern of UV-induced mutations (
Melanomas originate from melanocytes, whichare melanin-producing cells. Although the bHLHZip microphthalmia–associated transcription factor (MITF) is the master regulator of melanin production (pigmentation;
), early studies also identified MITF as a lineage-specific oncogene in melanoma and found that amplification of MITF was associated with inferior survival (
). Collectively, these observations support the idea of a tight connection between melanocyte differentiation and melanoma initiation and progression. We have previously shown that melanoma can be subdivided into at least four gene-expression phenotypes; one of these phenotypes is characterized by increased MITF expression and another by high expression of proliferation-associated genes coupled with decreased expression of MITF and its downstream targets (
In melanoma, the epigenetic landscape has been previously investigated and a subset of melanomas with increased CpG island methylation levels, similar to findings from other cancer forms, has been described. This melanoma phenotype has been termed the CpG Island Methylator Phenotype (CIMP) (
Epigenome-wide DNA methylation landscape of melanoma progression to brain metastasis reveals aberrations on homeobox D cluster associated with prognosis.
To further define genes whose expression is regulated by DNA methylation in melanomas, we have comprehensively investigated the epigenetic landscape of melanoma using high-density genome-wide CpG microarrays. Integrating DNA methylation and gene expression data highlighted the MITF gene, as tumors with decreased MITF expression also displayed hypermethylated MITF-associated CpGs. Importantly, these CpGs were located at the transcription start site (TSS) of the melanocyte-specific transcript MITF-M. Our findings reveal the regulation of the MITF pathway by CpG hypermethylation and highlight the potential significance of epigenetic changes in melanoma tumorigenesis
Results
DNA methylation patterns in melanoma tumors
We herein describe the epigenetic landscape of melanoma by analysis of the DNA methylation status of more than 480,000 CpGs in 50 metastatic melanoma tumors (Bergen melanomas). To determine the DNA methylation status specific to melanoma cells, we measured the DNA methylation in both cultured melanocytes (light, medium, and dark melanocytes) and tumors. We defined melanoma-methylated CpGs as β<0.1 in melanocytes and β>0.5 in at least 20% of tumors and melanoma-hypomethylated CpGs as β>0.9 in melanocytes and β<0.5 in at least 20% of tumors. A larger fraction of CpGs were methylated (n=9,886) rather than hypomethylated (n=5,236) in melanomas.
Hypomethylated CpGs were preferentially located in intergenic regions and gene bodies and in the “open sea” (located away from CpG islands). In contrast, hypermethylated CpGs were preferentially located in CpG islands (Figure 1a). Tumors, in general, had low DNA methylation levels near the TSS and high methylation levels in gene bodies, 3′-untranslated regions, and intergenic regions (Figure 1b). The variation in β-values was considerably lower for CpGs within 200 bp upstream of the TSS and for 3′-untranslated regions (Figure 1b). Hence, CpGs upstream of the TSS were predominantly hypomethylated, whereas CpGs in 3′-untranslated regions were predominantly hypermethylated. Gene ontology term analysis of hypomethylated CpG-associated genes using DAVID (
) showed enrichment of genes situated in the plasma membrane (false discovery rate (FDR)=1 × 10−21) and involved in system development (FDR=8 × 10−12). The hypermethylated CpGs in contrast were overrepresented in genes that regulate cell differentiation (FDR=3 × 10−46), as well as genes with a Homeobox domain (FDR=1 × 10−31). Furthermore, there was a strong preference for developmental genes (P=2 × 10−73) and embryonic stem cell–derived PRC2 targets (P=1 × 10−216) to be methylated in melanomas (Figure 1a). PRC2 is a complex with histone methyltransferase activity and DNA hypermethylation of its target genes in embryonic stem cells is in agreement with findings in other tumor types (
Figure 1DNA methylation patterns in melanoma. (a) Location of hypomethylated and hypermethylated CpGs, as well as all platform CpGs in respect to genes and CpG island annotations (left panel). Functional enrichment of genes that contain hypermethylated CpGs (right panel). For a given set of CpGs (all/hypometh./hypermeth.), a bar indicates the fraction of CpGs assigned to the respective annotation. TSS1500=1,500 to 201 bp upstream of transcription start, TSS200=200 bp to transcription start site, Body=gene body. PRC2-targets=set of genes that are targeted by histone H3K27-methylating complex PRC2 (
). (b) DNA methylation characteristics across 50 melanomas; mean of β-values (left) and standard deviation of β-values (right) along the genes. Meth., methylated.
To further validate these findings, we compared our results with the DNA methylation status of 244 melanomas from The Cancer Genome Atlas project (https://tcga-data.nci.nih.gov/tcga/). Using the same analysis procedure, we found 5,752 hypomethylated CpGs and 10,426 hypermethylated CpGs that were identical to 76% and 90% of Bergen CpGs, respectively. Our findings indicate that aberrant DNA methylation events in melanomas are reproducible, and in particular a strong preference for hypermethylation of developmental genes/PRC2-target genes is observed.
MITF expression is regulated by DNA methylation
The proliferative gene expression phenotype is characterized by downregulation of immune response and pigment synthesis genes (
). However, the biological mechanism underlying the expression signature is not fully investigated. Thus, we aimed to explore DNA methylation events that correlated with gene expression in melanoma. We used tumor cohorts with matching genome-wide methylation and gene expression data to allow us to identify genes whose expression is primarily regulated by DNA methylation. We found 2,922 negatively correlated CpGs (Spearman correlation <-0.39) and 2,406 positively correlated CpGs (correlation >0.39; FDR <0.05), corresponding to 1,119 and 503 unique genes, respectively (Supplementary Table S1 online). Negative correlation was preferentially observed for CpGs within 200 bp upstream of TSS and positive correlation for CpGs within gene bodies (Supplementary Figure S1 online). Gene ontology terms were not identified for either positively or negatively correlated CpGs at FDR <0.01. Notably, among the genes with a negative correlation between methylation and gene expression, MITF was highly ranked, having the 44th most negative correlation genome wide. The DNA methylation status of six CpGs associated with the MITF gene was coupled to reduced MITF expression in the Bergen cohort. As expected, the DNA methylations status of these MITF CpGs was associated with gene expression phenotypes when using an average β-value across these six CpGs (P=0.0003, Kruskal–Wallis test). Typically, melanomas of the pigmentation gene expression phenotype had low methylation levels coupled to high expression levels of MITF, whereas melanomas of the proliferative phenotype displayed the opposite pattern: high methylation levels associated with low gene expression levels (Figure 2a). In total, 49 CpGs covering the MITF gene were present on the array. Of the six CpGs that were significantly negatively associated with gene expression levels of MITF, three were located at the TSS of the M-isoform of MITF (the active isoform in melanocytes and melanoma cells), whereas three were located within the body of the MITF-M transcript close to the TSS (Figure 2a). A detailed analysis of the CpGs covering MITF demonstrated that the majority of CpGs showed limited variation in methylation across tumors with the exception of the CpGs located close to the MITF-M TSS. Specifically, CpGs located within the body of the MITF gene were hypermethylated, and all CpGs located at the TSS of the long isoform were hypomethylated across all tumors and normal cells (Figure 3). Furthermore, genome-wide CpG analysis of three melanocyte strains, dermal fibroblast, keratinocytes, and lymphocytes showed similarly consistent results. In normal melanocytes, the six CpGs located near the MITF-M TSS were all hypomethylated, whereas in all other normal cells they were hypermethylated (Figure 3). Subtle differences in methylation values were observed in the cultured melanocytes with highest methylation values in the light melanocytes and lowest in the dark melanocytes. However, it should be noted that all three strains had very low β-values corresponding to hypomethylation (Figure 3). Further analysis of the negatively associated list of CpGs demonstrated that some of these were located at the TSS of well-known MITF target genes involved in pigment synthesis such as MLANA and TYR (Figure 3). MLANA and TYR showed the same pattern as MITF: tumors with low expression and DNA hypermethylation of the respective genes were typically of the proliferative phenotype (Figure 2b and c). Overall, the majority of correlated CpGs, including the CpGs of MITF and MITF target genes (
) identified in the Bergen cohort, were validated in the The Cancer Genome Atlas cohort as shown in Figure 4. CpGs located at the TSS of MLANA and TYR correlated with gene expression, whereas the non-correlated CpG within the gene body of TYR displayed hypermethylation across all tumors, as well as normal cells (Figure 3). Moreover, MITF target genes unrelated to pigmentation, such as BCL2 and RAB27A, tended to show hypermethylation near the TSS in tumor samples with low mRNA levels of MITF (Figure 3).
Figure 2Correlation of gene methylation status and gene expression levels in microphthalmia–associated transcription factor (MITF) and MITF targets. For the CpG with the largest negative correlation value in MITF (a), and its target genes MLANA (b) and TYR (c), β-values are plotted against gene expression values for the respective gene. In each plot, dots represent individual tumors and are colored according to gene expression phenotype. Methylation levels of light (orange), medium (dark red), and dark (brown) melanocytes are shown as dashed lines. Below each plot the gene structure and position of each measured CpG is shown. CpGs with significant correlation between methylation and gene expression are labeled red (an asterisk indicates one of the three significant CpGs in MLANA).
Figure 3DNA methylation status of microphthalmia–associated transcription factor (MITF) and MITF pathway genes. Tumors in the Bergen and TCGA cohorts are ordered according to MITF gene expression. MITF and selected MITF target genes are plotted and CpGs are ordered according to genomic position. An asterisk indicates CpGs with significant negative correlation between methylation and gene expression and TSS regions (±1,500 bp from TSS) that include significant CpGs are marked by an orange line. The methylation status for normal cells is also shown. TCGA, The Cancer Genome Atlas data; TSS, transcription start site.
Figure 4Correlation of gene methylation status and gene expression levels in the Bergen and TCGA, The Cancer Genome Atlas data (TCGA) cohorts. Each dot represents a CpG’s correlation to gene expression. MITF, microphthalmia–associated transcription factor.
MITF pathway hypermethylation in melanoma cell lines
Next, we investigated genome-wide DNA methylation status of nine melanoma cell lines to determine whether the MITF pathway hypermethylation is independent of the melanoma tumor microenvironment. DNA methylation and gene expression correlation values in the cell line data showed an overlap of significantly correlated CpGs. Importantly, correlations of CpGs belonging to MITF, MITF targets, and MITF pathway genes were readily confirmed (Figure 5a). The MITF high-expressing cell line SK-MEL-5 showed hypomethylation of the identified MITF-M CpGs and CpGs in well-known targets of MITF such as TYR and MLANA. Conversely, the “MITF-low” cell lines CHL1, WM852, and MM383 showed hypermethylation of these same CpGs, supporting the results obtained from the tumor cohorts (Figure 5b). Investigating mRNA levels of the selected MITF target genes (MITF, MLANA, TYR, BCL2, and RAB27A) across the cell lines, we found that these overall followed the DNA methylation patterns (Figure 5c). Moreover, immunohistochemistry revealed that the cell lines, A2058 and HT144, with intermediate MITF expression consisted of both MITF-positive and MITF-negative cells (Figure 5d). As methylation levels of some CpGs tended to be intermediate in these cells, this suggests that some cells are hypomethylated and some are fully methylated. Finally, we validated the MITF hypermethylation observed in the melanoma cell lines using bisulphite Sanger sequencing (Figure 5b). Together, this implies that the observed link between DNA methylation and MITF expression is not dependent on the tumor microenvironment but instead is established within the tumor cells.
Figure 5Microphthalmia–associated transcription factor (MITF) pathway methylation in melanoma cell lines. (a) Correlation of gene methylation status and gene expression levels in the Bergen and cell line cohorts. Each dot represents a CpG’s correlation to gene expression. (b) DNA methylation status of CpGs covering the genes MITF, MLANA, TYR, BCL2, and RAB27A across all melanoma cell lines and normal cells (melanocytes, keratinocytes, dermal fibroblasts, and lymphocytes). CpGs are ordered according to genomic position. TSS regions (±1,500 bp from TSS) that include significant CpGs are marked by an orange line. Furthermore, the DNA methylation status of cg06640206 in the MITF-M TSS was fully validated using bisulfite Sanger sequencing. (c) Microarray gene expression values for the selected MITF genes in all melanoma cell lines. Expression values are also shown for WM852 and MM383 cells overexpressing MITF. Notably, MITF gene expression was not measured, as the probe on the array is located outside of the MITF-M insert. (d) MITF immunohistochemistry in melanoma cell lines with varying levels of MITF. TSS, transcription start site.
MITF is not sufficient to modulate DNA hypermethylation in melanoma
To investigate the nature of the relationship between MITF expression and DNA methylation, we overexpressed MITF-M in “MITF-low” cell lines (WM852 and MM383) using a lentivirus system. These cell lines were selected on the basis of low levels of MITF mRNA and hypermethylation of CpGs located at the TSS of MITF-M and MITF target genes (Figure 5b). 10 days after infection, we confirmed overexpression of the MITF protein (Figure 6c). We also analyzed the MITF-M overexpressing cells using the 450K-methylation arrays. The candidate MITF target and pathway CpGs remained firmly methylated. We then selected MLANA as a well-known MITF target previously shown to be activated by inducing MITF (
) and investigated MLANA mRNA and protein levels (Figures 5c and 6e). As indicated by the DNA methylation analysis, no increase in MLANA protein levels was seen, suggesting that MITF-M alone is not sufficient to shift the epigenetic program of the MITF differentiation pathway genes (Supplementary Figure S2 online). This hypothesis was further supported by gene expression analysis demonstrating that there is almost no change in expression of the MITF target genes in these cells (Figure 5c).
Figure 6Microphthalmia–associated transcription factor (MITF) expression and activity is regulated by CpG methylation. (a) Bisulphite Sanger sequencing confirms demethylation of the MITF-M promoter in MM383 and WM852 cells treated with 5 μM 5-Aza. (b) Western blot analysis of MITF-M following 5-Aza treatment for 96 hours in MM383 and WM852 cell lines. (c) Proliferation and invasion assays showing 5-Aza effects on WM852 cells. The Invasion assay was performed after 96 hours. (d) Proliferation and invasion assays showing 5-Aza and BRAF inhibition (BRAFi) effects on MM383 cells. Left plot shows proliferative capacity of MM383 cells treated with 5-Aza, BRAFi, or the combination. Right plot shows invasive capacity of MM383 cells treated with 5-Aza, BRAFi, or the combination. (e) Western blot analysis of MITF-M and MLANA following 5-Aza treatment for 96 hours in MM383 and WM852 cell lines with and without exogenous overexpression of MITF-M. As a control, protein lysate from SK-MEL-3 was included. (f) Bisulphite Sanger sequencing confirms demethylation of the MITF-M promoter in MM383-MITF-M+ and WM852-MITF-M+ cells treated with 5-Aza. Adenosine, green; cytosine, blue; guanine, black; thymidine, red. 5-Aza, 5′-Aza-2′-Deoxycytidine.
Global demethylation treatment reactivates MITF pathway activity
To evaluate whether DNA methylation blocks MITF expression in the “MITF-low” cell lines, we induced global demethylation of the cell lines by 5′-Aza-2′-Deoxycytidine (5-Aza) treatment for 96 hours. Demethylation was confirmed by bisulphite Sanger sequencing (Figure 6a). In particular, the cytosine-to-thymidine ratio decreased when treating cells with 5-Aza, indicating that demethylation had occurred. Furthermore, the demethylation treatment was sufficient to restore MITF protein levels in both cell lines (Figure 6b). Moreover, the viability of melanoma cells treated with 5-Aza alone was significantly decreased only after 96 hours in both cell lines (P<0.001, the Mann–Whitney test), whereas the invasive capacity of the cells was not altered (P>0.05, the Mann–Whitney test; Figure 6c and d). The late effect on cell viability could suggest that there is a non-specific toxic effect of 5-Aza. Furthermore, we found no effect of single agent BRAF inhibition in the BRAF V600E–positive “MITF-low” MM383 cell line on viability. Combining 5-Aza and PLX4032 showed a slight additive effect on viability at 96 hours as compared with either 5-Aza or PLX4032 alone (P<0.01, the Mann–Whitney Test, Figure 6d).
To further investigate the effect of MITF induction by 5-Aza, we analyzed the levels of MLANA. No induction of MLANA levels was observed, suggesting that the 5-Aza induces MITF-M expression but not MITF-M activity (Figure 6e). To further establish that the downstream targets of MITF are also regulated by methylation events, we treated the MITF-M overexpressing MM383 and WM852 cells with 5-Aza because these cells would have abundant exogenous MITF-M to induce MITF target expression if these were regulated by DNA methylation. Demethylation was confirmed by bisulphite Sanger sequencing (Figure 6f). We observed a slight increase in MITF-M levels, which was accompanied by restoration of MLANA protein levels (Figure 6e). It should be noted that MLANA expression is only partially induced by the exogenous MITF-M. This is demonstrated by the relatively low MLANA expression as compared with MLANA levels in SK-MEL-3 even though only a fifth of the total amount of SK-MEL-3 protein as compared with the other samples was loaded on the gel (Figure 6e). Thus, following MITF overexpression and demethylation treatment, some functional MITF is produced, albeit at a low level, and can induce low levels of MLANA.
Discussion
In the current study, we have compared genome-wide DNA methylation profiles from melanoma tumors with normal melanocytes. The analysis highlighted preferential hypermethylation of genes belonging to developmental processes and PRC2 complex targets; a finding previously demonstrated in multiple cancer types (
). Interestingly, combining gene expression and DNA methylation data revealed that a number of genes involved in pigment synthesis were regulated by hypermethylation, including MITF and several well-known MITF target genes. MITF is a master regulator of melanocyte differentiation (
). Moreover, studies have shown that genes involved in developmental processes are kept in relatively stable “on” or “off” states, with tumor specimens across many cancer types having enforced the “off” state by DNA methylation (
). Our data suggest that key melanocyte genes, such as MITF, are regulated in such a way. Melanocytes are MITF-“on” cells, and it is possible that MITF-“off” clones are generated during tumor evolution. Methylation events during tumor evolution often occur over many cell divisions and have a stochastic component (
). Hence, it is conceivable that subpopulations of melanoma cells emerge that have lost all MITF-positive cells and are therefore “locked” to the MITF-“off” state. Importantly, a demethylation agent re-induced MITF-M expression in “MITF-low” cell lines, indicating that demethylation is one of the factors required to rescue MITF-M expression. Treating “MITF-low” cell lines that exogenously overexpressed MITF-M with a demethylating agent led to partial induction of MLANA, a downstream target of MITF. The lack of strong MLANA induction, despite high expression of MITF, is consistent with the possibility that post-translational modification of MITF is necessary for its activity as previously described (
). Furthermore, these results also indicate that intrinsically “MITF-low” melanoma cells may be programed to inactivate MITF-M by post-translational modifications and that overexpression of exogenous MITF-M saturates the post-translational inactivation mechanisms, thus requiring abundant MITF-M in combination with 5-Aza to activate downstream targets. Although, further studies are warranted to determine the post-translational modification state of MITF, our study provide evidence showing that MITF-M expression and activity can be regulated by DNA methylation. Importantly, we previously identified a gene expression phenotype with decreased mRNA levels of MITF and MITF target genes, and herein we conclude that this phenotype may partially be explained by hypermethylation events. In a recent study,
found that “MITF-low” melanoma cells are intrinsically resistant to MAPK inhibitors. Thus, it is intriguing to speculate that hypermethylation of the MITF pathway may be a marker of resistance to MAPK inhibition. Indeed, we showed that the BRAF V600E-positive MM383 melanoma cell line harboring MITF-M promoter methylation did not respond to BRAF inhibition. Furthermore, we also tested the effects of 5-Aza on melanoma cell viability and invasion. Although, 5-Aza decreased viability and did not significantly affect invasion, this could be explained by the non-specific toxic activity of 5-Aza. Because of the complexity of regulation of MITF activity in melanoma cells, further studies are required to understand the mechanism of demethylating agents in melanoma.
In summary, we found that the activity of the master regulator of pigmentation, MITF, may be regulated by hypermethylation, and this is of fundamental importance for the understanding of the development and evolvement of melanoma.
Materials and Methods
Tumor and cell line cohorts analyzed for methylation patterns
We performed genome-wide methylation analysis using the Illumina Infinium HumanMethylation450K BeadChip in 50 stage III/IV tumors (Supplementary Table S2 online), nine melanoma cell lines, light, medium, and dark melanocytes, dermal epidermis, fibroblasts (ScienCell Research, Carlsbad, CA), and peripheral blood leukocytes (Promega, Madison, WI) (Supplementary Methods online). Written informed consent was obtained from all patients, and the local ethics committee approved the study. DNA was extracted as previously described (
) and was bisulphite treated using the EZ DNA Methylation Kit (Zymo, Irvine, CA) according to the manufacturer’s instructions. Methylation and gene expression data are available as Gene Expression Omnibus series GSE51547 and GSE22153, respectively.
Correlation of gene expression and methylation data
For methylation/gene expression correlation analyses CpGs with methylation levels having standard deviation <0.2 across tumors were excluded. The remaining features were permuted to obtain a data driven false discovery rate. This filter is advisable, as slight technical variation of β-values can be introduced by copy number aberrations, which in turn are correlated with gene expression (
DNA methylation analyses of urothelial carcinoma reveal distinct epigenetic subtypes and an association between gene copy number and methylation status.
), multiple probes of a gene were median merged, and the 50% most varying genes were kept. Detailed analysis procedures for the different data sets are described in Supplementary Information online.
Bisulphite Sanger sequencing, immunohistochemistry, and western blots
MITF-M was overexpressed using a lentivirus system as previously described (
). Western blot was performed with antibodies against MITF-M (C5, Thermo Scientific, Waltham, MA) and MLANA (EP1422Y, Abcam, Cambridge, UK). DNA primers were designed to specifically amplify bisulphite converted genomic DNA of a distinct region covering the MITF promoter including CpGs covered by the array. The sequencing products were sequenced using a 3130XL sequencer. For MITF-M immunohistochemical analysis, 2 mm sections were automatically pre-treated using the PT-link system (DAKO, Glostrup, Denmark) and stained in an Autostainer Plus (DAKO) using a monoclonal MITF-antibody (C5, Thermo Scientific, diluted 1:50).
5-Aza treatment, cell viability, and invasion assays
MM383 and WM852 cells were seeded at a density of 9 × 103 cells cm−2 treated 24 hours later with 5 μM 5-Aza. The drug was replenished every 24 hours for up to 96 hours of treatment (four pulses) in fresh medium. DNA, RNA, and protein were isolated for molecular analyses. Cell viability was measured using an AlamarBlue assay and migration/invasion using the real-time cell analyzer xCELLigence system (ACEA Biosciences, San Diego, CA). For the AlamarBlue assay, cells were seeded at a density of 12 × 103 cells cm−2 (4,000 cells per well) in 21 replicates per treatment. Cells were treated with 5-Aza (5 μM), PLX4032 (200 nM), or 5-Aza (5 μM)+PLX4032 (200 nM) 24 hours after seeding. The drugs were replenished every 24 hours for up to 96 hours of treatment (four pulses) in fresh medium. Statistics were performed using the Mann–Whitney’s U-test.
For the invasion experiments, melanoma cells were serum starved prior to cell seeding. Cells were seeded into the upper chamber of the invasion CIM-plates (4,000 cells per well) in serum-free medium and treated directly as described for the AlamarBlue assay (3–6 replicates per treatment). The lower chambers were filled with (10%) fetal bovine serum-supplemented medium used as a chemoattractant. Cell invasion was detected by electric sensors, measuring the impedance response, on the bottom of the upper chamber while the cells were penetrating the membrane. Real-time measurements of cell migration/invasion were performed at 30-minute intervals, and the impedance responses were interpreted by the real-time cell analyzer software and converted to cell indices. Statistics were performed using the Mann–Whitney’s U-test.
Acknowledgments
The work was supported by the Swedish Cancer Society, The Swedish Research Council, BioCARE, Berta Kamprad Foundation, The Gunnar Nilsson Cancer Foundation, The Gustav Vth Jubilee Foundation, and Governmental Support for Medical Research. We thank Lars Rönnstrand for providing us with PLX4032.
DNA methylation analyses of urothelial carcinoma reveal distinct epigenetic subtypes and an association between gene copy number and methylation status.
Epigenome-wide DNA methylation landscape of melanoma progression to brain metastasis reveals aberrations on homeobox D cluster associated with prognosis.
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